Maternal Sociodemographic Parameters: Impact on Trace Element Status and Pregnancy Outcomes in Nigerian Women (Report‪)‬

INTRODUCTION Maternal socioeconomic status and non-modifiable, non-biological factors that affect mental and physical well-being (1) have been associated with maternal nutrition and pregnancy outcomes (2,3). Although it is increasingly acknowledged that societal factors play a significant role in micronutrient status and pregnancy outcomes (1,3), studies on impacts of socioeconomic status on pregnancy outcomes have produced conflicting results (4,5). For instance, the risk of preterm birth has been reported in mothers of low socioeconomic status (6). In Danish and Norwegian populations, the risk of preterm birth was reported to have an inverse association with educational level of mothers (7). Morgen et al. did not find any association between risk of preterm birth and other indicators of socioeconomic status, such as household income and parental occupation (2). A study in Germany found that women with the lowest level of education had a significantly-elevated risk of small-for-gestational age newborns compared to women with the highest level of education (8), with the distribution of factors known to influence intrauterine growth varying with educational level. There has also been controversy over the influence of unemployment in the family on pregnancy outcomes. While some studies have shown associations of unemployment with preterm delivery (9,10), low birthweight (LBW) (11), small-for-gestational age (12), and a higher perinatal mortality rate (11), others have shown opposite results (13,14). Additionally, deficiencies of trace elements, including copper and zinc, have been associated with maternal morbidity, such as hypertension (copper), infections, and diabetes mellitus (zinc) without significant effects on foetal outcomes (15). Adverse foetal outcomes have been recognized to constitute an important public-health problem because several chronic diseases of public-health significance have been traced to adverse intrauterine and early life (16,17). Although a high prevalence of deficiencies of trace elements (copper, iron, and zinc) has been reported among Nigerian pregnant women (18), there is a paucity of data on the role of maternal socioeconomic status on plasma levels of these trace elements and pregnancy outcomes. The present study was, therefore, conducted to determine the impact of maternal sociodemographic parameters on plasma iron, copper and zinc level and pregnancy outcomes in Nigerian pregnant women.